Bioreactor for cell growth and associated methods

ABSTRACT

Apparatuses, systems, and methods are provided for growing and maintaining cells. A three-dimensional matrix, such as a hydrogel material, is seeded with cells and placed in a bioreactor having two compartments. The matrix is supported between the two compartments by first and second porous materials, which engage opposing surfaces of the matrix. A first media stream having certain properties is propagated through the first compartment, where it contacts one surface of the matrix via the first porous material. A second media stream having different properties is propagated through the second compartment such that it contacts the opposite surface of the matrix via the second porous material. Through migration of each stream at least partially into the matrix, various controlled gradients may be established within the matrix, encouraging growth of the cells. Such gradients include osmotic pressure, oscillating osmotic pressure, hydrostatic pressure, oxygen tension, and/or nutrient gradients.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to bioreactors for growing cells and, moreparticularly, to bioreactors for simulating the effects of mechanicalloading and physiologic environmental conditions to facilitate thegrowth of cells.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There is a significant and growing need for the ex vivo creation ofmammalian tissues for the augmentation or replacement of damaged tissuesand organs. For example, cartilage cells produced in vitro may be usefulfor repairing cartilage that has been damaged in a knee injury ordeteriorated by osteoarthritis.

The successful development of tissues created ex vivo depends on severalfactors. Such factors may include an adequate cell source that can begrown and differentiated into the desired tissue, a template that willpromote cell adhesion and induce the deposition of extracellular matrixproteins, and a growth environment that will foster cell communication.

Different cells must possess different properties for proper functioningin the human body. For example, articular cartilage, or the cartilagethat lines bones in joints, is firm and flexible connective tissue thatis specialized to absorb and resist compression. Articular cartilage isprotected by a nutritive and lubricating medium known as the synovialfluid of the joint. Cartilage is composed of chondrocyte cells, whichoccupy 10-20% of its volume, and an extracellular material that containsup to 80% water by weight.

The chondrocytes are enclosed within small cavities, called lacunae,generally in groups of 2, 4, or 6 cells as a result of mitosis andrestricted cellular movement. The extracellular material consistsprimarily of large hydrated proteoglycan aggregates entrapped within amatrix of collagen fibrils. The matrix is predominantly made of type IIcollagen which forms a meshwork of high tensile-strength fibrils. Theentrapped proteoglycans (also called mucopolysaccharides) are composedof a core protein that forms a backbone to which many glycosaminoglycan(GAG) chains are covalently attached. The GAGs are high negativelycharged molecules that encourage the binding of water and the generationof a large osmotic swelling pressure.

The mechanical behavior of articular cartilage is similar to that of asponge. During rest, for example when a person is sitting or lying down,the osmotic pressure generated by the proteoglycan aggregates fills thetissue with water up to its maximum capacity. This swelling pressure iscontained only by the resilient collagen meshwork. Under load, such aswhen the person is standing up or walking, the weight of the bodycompresses the cartilage, squeezing water out until the osmotic pressuregenerated by the polyglycan produces a swelling force (due to the boundwater) equal to the compressive force across the joint. When the load isremoved, the cartilage slowly swells back to its full extent.

In order for the tissue created in vitro to function properly, it musthave the same properties as the native tissue, or tissue found naturallyin the human body. For example, experimental evidence has shown that theapplication of mechanical stimuli to engineered chondrocytic constructsthat emulate the forces applied to articular cartilage leads to theproduction of a more functional artificially-produced tissue. In otherwords, tissue developed using the application of mechanical loading ismore similar in its content and mechanical properties to physiologiccartilage than tissue produced without mechanical loading.

The main types of mechanical loads that have been investigated include(1) hydrostatic pressure, (2) direct mechanical compression, (3) highand/or low shear forces, (4) forced perfusion, and (5) ultrasoniccompression or shear wave induction. Each of these involves theapplication of actual mechanical stimulation to the cells growing invitro. A persistent drawback of each of these types of mechanicalstimulation, however, is the increased complexity of the systemnecessary to produce the mechanical load stimulus. This complexity ismagnified when production systems are scaled-up for producing largequantities of tissue.

Thus, there is a need for a bioreactor and method for producing andmaintaining cells that are similar in content and possess similarmechanical properties to physiologic cells on a large scale with reducedcomplexity.

BRIEF SUMMARY

The present invention provides systems, apparatuses, and methods forgrowing cells. In general, a three-dimensional matrix that is seededwith cells is placed in a bioreactor between two compartments. A mediastream is propagated through the first compartment, and another mediastream having different properties or components is propagated throughthe second compartment. In this way, each media stream contacts arespective surface of the matrix and migrates at least partially intothe matrix, thereby establishing a controlled gradient within the matrixbetween the two surfaces to encourage the growth of the cells in thematrix. Various types and combinations of gradients may be established,such as an osmotic pressure gradient, an oxygen tension gradient, anutrient gradient, a hydrostatic pressure gradient, as well ascombinations of these gradients. Furthermore, these gradients may bevaried as a function of time. For example, the osmolality of one of thestreams may be varied as a function of time to create an oscillatingosmotic pressure gradient to enhance cell growth and metabolism.

In one embodiment, a system for growing and maintaining cells isprovided. The system includes a bioreactor, a source of a first mediasolution, and a source of a second media solution that is different fromthe first media solution. The bioreactor has a first compartment havinga first inlet, a first outlet in fluid communication with the firstinlet, and a first porous material disposed within the firstcompartment. The bioreactor also has a second compartment adjacent thefirst compartment that includes a second inlet, a second outlet in fluidcommunication with the second inlet, and a second porous materialdisposed within the second compartment. A hydrogel material seeded withcells is disposed between the first compartment and the secondcompartment and is at least partially supported on a first surface ofthe hydrogel material by the first porous material and on an opposite,second surface of the hydrogel material by the second porous material.The source of the first media solution is in fluid communication withthe first inlet, and the source of the second media solution is in fluidcommunication with the source of the first media solution and at leastone of the first and second inlets. In this way, propagation of at leastthe first media solution through the first compartment and propagationof the second media solution through the second compartment establishesa controlled gradient across a thickness of the hydrogel material.

Some systems further include a pump in fluid communication with at leastone of the sources. The pump is configured to propagate at least one ofthe media solutions through at least one of the first and secondcompartments. A controller may also be included, where the controller isconfigured to control the pump such that a solution comprising at leastone of the first and second media solutions is propagated through thefirst compartment via the first inlet and the second media solution ispropagated through the second compartment via the second inlet. In someembodiments, a pinch valve is included between the sources of the firstand second media solutions and the first compartment. The pinch valvemay be configured to allow a flow of the first media from the respectivesource to the first inlet and to allow a flow of a solution comprisingthe first and second media solutions from both the respective sources tothe first inlet.

The first media solution may be propagated at a predetermined flow ratethat varies as a function of time, and the second media solution may bepropagated at a generally constant flow rate such that a hydrostaticpressure gradient that varies as a function of time is establishedacross the thickness of the hydrogel. The first media solution may havea first osmolality and the second media solution may have a secondosmolality that is different from the first osmolality such that anosmotic pressure gradient is established across the thickness of thehydrogel. Similarly, the first media solution may have a first oxygencontent and the second media solution may have a second oxygen contentthat is different from the first oxygen content such that an oxygentension gradient is established across the thickness of the hydrogel.Furthermore, the first media solution may have a first nutrient contentand the second media solution may have a second nutrient content that isdifferent from the first nutrient content such that a nutrient gradientis established across the thickness of the hydrogel.

In some cases, the system includes a source of a third media solutionhaving a different osmolality than the first and second media solutions.The first and third media solutions may be alternately propagatedthrough the first compartment to create an oscillating osmotic pressuregradient across the thickness of the hydrogel material. Furthermore, afirst sample port may be provided downstream of the first outlet and asecond sample port may be provided downstream of the second outlet, suchthat the sample ports provide access to media exiting the first andsecond compartments through the first and second outlets, respectively.

In other embodiments, an apparatus for growing and maintaining cells isprovided. The apparatus includes a first compartment, a secondcompartment, and a hydrogel material seeded with cells positionedbetween the first and second compartments. The first compartmentincludes a first inlet configured to receive a first media solution, afirst outlet in fluid communication with the first inlet, and a firstporous material disposed within the first compartment. Similarly, thesecond compartment includes a second inlet configured to receive asecond media solution, a second outlet in fluid communication with thesecond inlet, and a second porous material disposed within the secondcompartment. The hydrogel material is at least partially supported on afirst surface of the hydrogel material by the first porous material andon an opposite second surface of the hydrogel material by the secondporous material. The first media solution is different from the secondmedia solution, and the first and second compartments are configuredsuch that propagation of the first media solution through the firstcompartment and propagation of the second media solution through thesecond compartment establishes a controlled gradient across a thicknessof the hydrogel material.

The hydrogel material may be seeded with cells that includechondrocytes. Furthermore, the hydrogel material may include sodiumalginate, agarose, hyaluronic acid, chondroiton sulfate, collagen,proteoglycan, and/or cell adhesion peptides.

In some cases, the first and second compartments are configured to allowthe first media solution to contact the first surface of the hydrogelmaterial and the second media solution to contact the second surface ofthe hydrogel material. As such, the first media solution and the secondmedia solution may be permitted to contact each other only within thehydrogel material.

In some embodiments, a spacer element is included between the first andsecond compartments. The spacer element may be configured to partiallysurround the hydrogel material. The spacer element may also permitsealing of the first surface of the hydrogel material with a portion ofthe first compartment and sealing of the second surface of the hydrogelmaterial with a portion of the second compartment.

The first compartment may be configured to receive the first mediasolution having a first osmolality and the second compartment may beconfigured to receive the second media solution having a secondosmolality that is different from the first osmolality such that anosmotic pressure gradient is established across the thickness of thehydrogel. Also, the first compartment may be configured to receive thefirst media solution having a first oxygen content and the secondcompartment may be configured to receive the second media solutionhaving a second oxygen content that is different from the first oxygencontent such that an oxygen tension gradient is established across thethickness of the hydrogel. Furthermore, the first compartment may beconfigured to receive the first media solution having a first nutrientcontent and the second compartment may be configured to receive thesecond media solution having a second nutrient content that is differentfrom the first nutrient content such that a nutrient gradient isestablished across the thickness of the hydrogel.

The first compartment may be configured to receive the first mediasolution at a predetermined flow rate that varies as a function of time,and the second compartment may be configured to receive the second mediasolution at a generally constant flow rate. Furthermore, the firstcompartment may be configured to alternately receive the first mediasolution and a third media solution, where the third media solution hasa different osmolality than the first media solution. In this way,alternate propagation of the first and third media solutions through thefirst compartment may create an oscillating osmotic pressure gradientacross the thickness of the hydrogel material. In some cases, each ofthe first and second inlets and the first and second outlets has anorifice. The orifice of the first inlet may have a largercross-sectional area than the orifice of the first outlet and theorifice of the second inlet may have approximately the samecross-sectional area as the orifice of the second outlet. In this way,the hydrostatic pressure in the first compartment may be greater thanthe hydrostatic pressure in the second compartment such that ahydrostatic pressure gradient is created across the thickness of thehydrogel.

In other embodiments, a method of growing cells is provided. Athree-dimensional matrix seeded with cells is initially provided, and afirst media stream having a first osmolality is propagated across afirst surface of the matrix. Likewise, a second media stream having asecond osmolality is propagated across a second surface of the matrixthat is opposite the first surface. An osmotic pressure gradient iscreated within the matrix between the first surface and the secondsurface by migration of the first media stream at least partially intothe matrix through the first surface and migration of the second mediastream at least partially into the matrix through the second surface,and the creation of the osmotic pressure gradient within the matrixencourages growth of the cells.

In some cases, a hydrogel material is provided that includes sodiumalginate, agarose, hyaluronic acid, chondroiton sulfate, collagen,proteoglycan, and/or cell adhesion peptides. Furthermore, thethree-dimensional matrix may be seeded with chondrocytes.

The flow rate of the first media stream may be varied as a function oftime and the flow rate of the second media solution may be maintainedgenerally constant, thereby varying the hydrostatic pressure gradientacross the matrix. In some embodiments, the osmolality of the firstmedia stream may be varied and the osmolality of the second media streammay be maintained generally constant. In this regard, the osmolality ofthe first media stream may be alternated between an osmolality ofapproximately 550 mOsm for a predetermined amount of time andapproximately 330 mOsm for a predetermined amount of time, and theosmolality of the second media stream may be maintained generallyconstant at an osmolality of approximately 330 mOsm. The osmolality ofthe first media stream may be alternated between two differentosmolalities once approximately every 3 to 6 hours. In some cases, theosmolality of the first media stream may be alternated between twodifferent osmolalities once approximately every 5 hours.

In some embodiments, a solution that includes basal media, sucrose, anda media including a growth factor, a nutrient, and/or a cytokine may bepropagated as the first media stream. Similarly, a solution thatincludes basal media may be propagated as the second media stream. Forexample, a solution of at least basal media, sucrose, and TGF-β1 (agrowth factor for chondrocytes) may be propagated as the first mediastream, and a solution of at least basal media may be propagated as thesecond media stream. Furthermore, a solution of at least basal media,sucrose, and TGF-β1 and a solution of at least basal media and TGF-β1may be alternately propagated as the first media stream, and a solutionof at least basal media may be propagated as the second media stream.

In other embodiments of a method of growing cells, a hydrogel materialseeded with chondrocyte cells may be provided, positioned between afirst porous material and a second porous material. A first media streammay be propagated at a predetermined flow rate and a predeterminedosmolality through the first porous material, and a second media streammay be propagated at a predetermined flow rate and a predeterminedosmolality through the second porous material. The osmolality of thefirst media stream may be varied and the osmolality of the second mediastream may be maintained generally constant to create an oscillatingosmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel material.

In some cases, the osmolality of the first media stream creates anosmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel material that oscillatesbetween an osmotic pressure gradient of approximately 0 mOsm/mm andapproximately 74 mOsm/mm. Furthermore, the osmolality of the first mediastream may be alternated between two different osmolalities onceapproximately every 3 to 6 hours.

In other embodiments of a method of growing cells, a hydrogel materialseeded with chondrocyte cells may be provided, positioned between afirst porous material and a second porous material. A first media streamhaving a first oxygen content may be propagated through the first porousmaterial, and a second media stream having a second oxygen content maybe propagated through the second porous material. In this way, an oxygentension gradient may be created within the matrix between a firstsurface of the hydrogel that is in contact with the first porousmaterial and a second surface of the hydrogel that is in contact withthe second porous material by migration of the first media stream atleast partially into the matrix through the first surface and migrationof the second media stream at least partially into the matrix throughthe second surface, where creation of the oxygen tension gradient withinthe matrix encourages the growth of the cells. Thus, oxygen may beremoved from the first media stream, and/or nitrogen may be added to thefirst media stream to displace at least some of the oxygen.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS

Having thus described the invention in general terms, reference will nowbe made to the accompanying drawings, which are not necessarily drawn toscale, and wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic illustration of a system for growing cellsaccording to one embodiment;

FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of a bioreactor according to oneembodiment;

FIG. 3A is an illustration of an osmotic pressure gradient across ahydrogel material according to one embodiment, where the osmoticpressure gradient extends from one surface of the hydrogel to the othersurface;

FIG. 3B is an illustration of an osmotic pressure gradient that extendsfrom the exterior of the hydrogel towards the center;

FIG. 4 is a schematic illustration of a system for growing cellsaccording to another embodiment;

FIG. 5 is a perspective view of a bioreactor according to oneembodiment;

FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a bioreactor according to anotherembodiment;

FIG. 7 is an exploded cross-sectional side view of the bioreactor ofFIG. 2;

FIGS. 8A-8G show the bioreactor of FIG. 2 disassembled;

FIG. 9 depicts temporal media osmolality and the resulting osmolalitygradient produced in a hydrogel material under an oscillating osmoticpressure gradient condition; and

FIG. 10 depicts sGAG production of cells after 28 days under differentbioreactor operating conditions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the present invention now will be described more fullyhereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which some,but not all embodiments of the inventions are shown. Indeed, theseembodiments may be in many different forms and should not be construedas limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, theseembodiments are provided so that this disclosure will satisfy applicablelegal requirements. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout.

Bioreactors, systems, and methods are provided for growing andmaintaining cells for use in an organism by simulating mechanicalloading or existing conditions experienced by the cells in vitro, suchas by selectively or preferentially nourishing the separate tissuelayers. In general, cells, such as chondrocytes for the building ofcartilage, are seeded in a hydrogel material, which is then placed in abioreactor having two separate compartments. The hydrogel material issupported on one side by a porous material disposed in one of thecompartments and on the other side by another porous material disposedin the other compartment. Media solutions are propagated through the twocompartments such that each solution contacts the porous material of therespective compartment and, in turn, contacts the surface of thehydrogel supported by the respective porous material. In this way,various types of controlled gradients may be established through thethickness of the hydrogel, allowing different growth factors thatpromote the growth and metabolism of different cell phenotypes to bedelivered to different layers of the hydrogel, promoting the growth ofdifferent cell types through the thickness of the hydrogel.

For example, two media solutions having different osmolalities may bepropagated through the bioreactor, one through each compartment, tocreate an osmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel material. Thus,the osmotic pressure within the hydrogel may be higher at one side ofthe hydrogel material and may decrease along a thickness of the hydrogelto the other side, simulating in vivo conditions and encouraging thegrowth of the cells. Furthermore, the osmolality of the media streamsmay be varied such that the osmotic pressure gradient across thehydrogel oscillates, or cycles between a certain osmotic pressuregradient and no osmotic pressure gradient over a certain period of time,as described below. Oscillation of the osmotic pressure gradient mayfurther encourage growth of cells, such as chondrocytes, whichexperience similar oscillations in an organism. Other types ofgradients, such as an oxygen tension gradient, a nutrient gradient,and/or a hydrostatic gradient, may also be established to facilitate thegrowth of cells. In this way, tissue constructs in which the physiologicstructural architecture and/or cell morphology varies through thethickness of the tissue may be developed.

Systems for Growing Cells

A system 100 for growing and maintaining cells is shown in FIG. 1. Thesystem 100 includes a bioreactor 10, a source of a first media solution105, as well as a source of a second media solution 110 that isdifferent from the first media solution 105. The bioreactor 10 includesa first compartment 12 and a second compartment 14, and a hydrogelmaterial 24 seeded with cells is positioned between the first and secondcompartments 12, 14. The bioreactor 10 is configured such thatpropagation of the first media solution 105 or a mixture of the firstand second media solutions 105, 110 through the first compartment 12 ofthe bioreactor 10 and propagation of the second media solution 110through the second compartment 14 establishes a controlled gradientacross the thickness of the hydrogel material 24, as described below.

Turning to FIG. 2, the first compartment 12 of the bioreactor 10includes a first inlet 16 and a first outlet 18 in fluid communicationwith the first inlet 16. Similarly, the second compartment 14 includes asecond inlet 20 and a second outlet 22 in fluid communication with thesecond inlet 20. The hydrogel material 24, which is seeded with cells,is disposed between the first and second compartments 12, 14. Ingeneral, cells may be seeded within a hydrogel by mixing the cells in aliquid state and then gelling the material by cooling, heating, or usinga chemical reaction. A first surface 26 of the hydrogel 24 is at leastpartially supported by a first porous material 28, such as a sponge,positioned in the first compartment 12, and an opposite, second surface30 of the hydrogel 24 is likewise at least partially supported by asecond porous material 32 positioned in the second compartment 14.

The compartments 12, 14 are configured such that the first mediasolution may be propagated into the first compartment 12 through thefirst inlet 16 and out the first outlet 18. Likewise, the second mediasolution may be propagated into the second compartment 14 through thesecond inlet 20 and out the second outlet 22. As media solution flowsinto each compartment 12, 14, the solution migrates through therespective porous material 28, 32 and contacts the respective surface26, 30 of the hydrogel 24, at least partially migrating into thehydrogel 24. Thus, propagation of a first media solution havingdifferent properties than the second media solution serves to establisha gradient across the thickness of the hydrogel material 24. In thisway, the gradient created within the hydrogel material 24 extends fromone surface 26, 30 of the hydrogel 24 to the other surface 26, 30,rather than from the exterior of the hydrogel 24 (i.e., multiplesurfaces 26, 30) inwards (i.e., towards the center of the hydrogel 24).

For example, an osmotic pressure gradient may be established by using afirst media solution having a first osmolality and using a second mediasolution having a second osmolality that is different from the firstosmolality. An illustration of a surface-to-surface osmotic pressuregradient according to embodiments of the present invention is shown inFIG. 3A, while an illustration of a surface-to-center osmotic pressuregradient is shown in FIG. 3B. Likewise, an oxygen tension gradient maybe established using media solutions having different oxygen contents; anutrient gradient may be established using media solutions havingdifferent nutrient contents; and a hydrostatic pressure gradient may beestablished by propagating the first media solution at a flow rate thatvaries as a function of time and propagating the second media solutionat a flow rate that is generally constant, as described below.

Referring again to FIG. 2, the hydrogel material 24 or similarcell-supporting construct may be configured (i.e., sized and shaped) invarious ways, depending on the configuration of the bioreactor, the typeof cells to be grown, the desired configuration of the end product ofthe growth, and the particular application of the end product (e.g., inwhat organism and in what part of the organism the tissue will be used),among other factors. In some embodiments, the size and shape of thehydrogel 24 may be selected to approximate the size and shape of thetissue to be repaired. For example, hydrogel material 24 used forgrowing cells to be used in articular cartilage repairs in the humanbody may be in the shape of a disc, have a thickness of about 2-5 mm andhave a diameter of about 6-10 mm, reflecting the shape, thickness, andsize of the cartilage to be repaired. Thus, an exemplary bioreactor 10for growing articular cartilage may be configured to receive a hydrogelmaterial 24 formed as a disc with a thickness of approximately 3 mm anda diameter of approximately 15-20 mm. In many cases, a larger graft maybe developed, which can then be trimmed to the appropriate size.

The hydrogel material 24 itself may include various chemical compoundsand substances to create an appropriate environment and structure forgrowing and maintaining the desired cells. For example, the hydrogelmaterial may include sodium alginate, agarose, hyaluronic acid,chondroiton sulfate, collagen, and/or proteoglycan, or other hydrogelsknown to support cellular growth as well as modified hydrogels with celladhesion peptides or a combination of these hydrogels, among othercomponents. Additionally, the hydrogel 24 may be seeded with varioustypes of cells, including combinations of cells, to grow the desiredtissue. For example, the hydrogel may be seeded with chondrocytes toproduce cartilaginous tissue, osteoblasts to produce bone, and othertypes of cells. An example of growing tissue that includes combinationsof cells may involve seeding one side of the hydrogel with osteoblastsand seeding the other side of the hydrogel with chondrocytes to producea cartilage-bone construct.

The porous material 28, 32 that supports the hydrogel 24 may also havevarious configurations as appropriate considering the configuration ofthe compartments 12, 14 and the hydrogel 24 to be supported. For ahydrogel disc, for example, each porous material may also be configuredas a disc. Generally, the porous material 28, 32 can be sterilizablesuch that it will not contaminate the hydrogel with which it is incontact and have adequate stiffness to provide support to the centralregion of the hydrogel 24. For example, in some cases, the porousmaterial 28, 32 may be a sponge, such as that commonly used in woundV.A.C.® applications. In some embodiments, the porous material ismacro-porous such that the fluid flow through each compartment is notdisrupted.

Turning again to FIG. 1, the media solutions 105, 110 propagated throughthe bioreactor 10 may include various compounds and nutrients asnecessary to provide adequate nutritional support to the growing cellsas well as to achieve the desired gradients across the hydrogel material24. In some embodiments, the first media solution 105 includes growthfactors that are known to stimulate growth and/or differentiation of theparticular type of cell and components that can alter properties of thesolution to achieve the desired type of gradient in a way that isnon-toxic to the cells. For example, in systems for growing chondrocytesand where an osmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel is desired,the first media solution 105 may include Transforming Growth Factor-beta1 (TGF-β1) or any other growth factor known to promote chondrocytegrowth. TGF-β1 is a protein that controls proliferation,differentiation, and other cellular functions. Other growth factors usedmay include inhibins, activin, anti-mullerian hormone, bonemorphogenetic protein, decapentaplegic, and Vg-1, depending on the typeof cells to be grown. In this example, the first media solution 105 mayalso include sucrose or any other compound that can alter the osmolalityof the solution, such as sodium chloride, to facilitate the achievementof an osmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel 24.

The second media solution 110, on the other hand, may be composed ofbasal media, which may be a solution of components including salts,amino acids, vitamins, and energy sources that establish an appropriateenvironment for cell life and provide nutrition for cell growth. As anexample, basal media used for growing chondrocytes may consist ofDulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium (DMEM), insulin-transferrin-sodiumselenium media supplement (ITS), fetal bovine serum, L-glutamine,L-proline, non-essential amino acids, ascorbic acid, andantibiotic/antimycotic. Continuing the example of establishing anosmotic pressure gradient, the second media solution 110 may have alower osmolality than the first media solution 105. Thus, by propagatingthe first media solution 105 (higher osmolality) through the firstcompartment 12 and propagating the second media solution 110 (lowerosmolality) through the second compartment 14, a predetermined osmoticpressure gradient may be established across the hydrogel material 24, asillustrated in FIG. 3A.

The osmotic pressure gradient to be established across the hydrogelmaterial 24 in this case may be determined according to the type ofcells to be grown in the hydrogel and the extent ofcompression/decompression experienced in the native cells in vivo. Inother words, the desired osmotic pressure gradient in some embodimentsis selected to reflect the forces applied to the cells as they grownaturally within an organism. For example, in some embodiments, theosmolality of the first media solution may be in the range of about500-600 mOsm, and the osmolality may be adjusted by varying theproportion of sucrose included in the solution. The second mediasolution may have an osmolality of about 200-400 mOsm. In the case ofgrowing chondrocytes for articular cartilage repairs, the osmolality ofthe first media solution may be approximately 550 mOsm, and theosmolality of the second media solution may be approximately 330 mOsm.In other embodiments, the osmolalities of the first and second mediasolutions may be selected such that the osmolality of the first mediasolution is about 55-75% greater than the osmolality of the second mediasolution.

Furthermore, a mixture of the first media solution 105 and the secondmedia solution 110 may by propagated through the first compartment 12 inorder to decrease the osmolality of the combined solution. In this way,the osmolality of the stream propagated through the first compartment 12may be varied (for example, as a function of time) by alternatelysupplying the first media solution 105 alone (higher osmolality) and thecombination of the first media solution 105 and the second mediasolution 110 (lower osmolality). A varying, or oscillating, osmoticpressure gradient may further encourage growth of the cells within thehydrogel by simulating the application and removal of forces upon thecells in vivo. Returning to the example of articular cartilage,cartilage in the human body absorbs water from its surroundings atcertain times and expels water at other times, depending on the activityin which the person is engaged. When a person is sitting or lying down,for example, the cartilage in the knees absorbs water (decompression),whereas when the person is standing or walking, the cartilage expels thewater (compression). Thus, by varying the osmolality in the firstcompartment 12 and maintaining the osmolality in the second compartment14, an oscillating osmotic pressure gradient may be established acrossthe hydrogel material 24 that more closely mimics the conditionsexperienced by the cells as they grow in an organism. The osmoticpressure gradient may oscillate between a gradient of about 74 mOsm/mmto about 0 mOsm/mm (i.e., no osmotic pressure gradient), depending onthe type of cells and the application.

In another example, an oxygen tension gradient may be established acrossthe thickness of the hydrogel. In this case, oxygen may be removed fromone of the media solutions, such as the first media solution 105, suchthat the first media solution 105 has a lesser oxygen content than thesecond media solution 110 and creates a gradient when the solutions arepropagated through the respective compartments 12, 14. Alternatively,oxygen may be displaced from one of the media solutions, such as thefirst media solution 105, by adding another gas to the solution, such asnitrogen. The oxygen tension gradient may be established across thethickness of the hydrogel by propagating one of the media solutionshaving an oxygen concentration as high as 21% and the other mediasolution having an oxygen concentration as low as 0%, depending on thetype of cells involved. For example, the first media solution 105 mayhave an oxygen concentration of 1-5%, and the second media solution 110may have an oxygen concentration of 17-21%.

An oxygen tension gradient may be established in this way to reflect thedepletion of oxygen in the deep layers of certain types of tissue, suchas cartilage, due to a relative lack of nutrient, water, and oxygensupply from the much more impermeable bony surface upon which the tissuesits. For example, in the case of cartilage, oxygen (and nutrient)gradients in vivo occur as a result of the surface of the cartilagebeing exposed to synovial fluid having oxygen and nutrients while theunder-surface is attached to relatively impermeable subchondral bone. Anutrient gradient may be established by providing media solutions havingdifferent nutrient contents. Thus, for example, the first media solution105 propagated through the first compartment 12 may have fewer nutrientsthan the second media solution 110 propagated through the secondcompartment 14, thereby establishing a nutrient gradient across thethickness of the hydrogel 24.

In addition to or instead of such gradient, a hydrostatic pressuregradient may be established across the hydrogel material 24. Forinstance, the first media solution 105 may be propagated at a firstpredetermined flow rate, such as a flow rate of between 0.01 ml/hr. and10 ml/hr, and the second media solution 110 may be propagated at asecond predetermined flow rate that is different from the first flowrate. As an example, the first media solution 105 may be propagatedthrough the first compartment 12 at a flow rate of 5 ml/hr, whereas thesecond media solution 110 may be propagated through the secondcompartment 14 at a flow rate of 0.55 ml/hr, thereby establishing ahydrostatic pressure gradient. Furthermore, the flow rate of one of themedia solutions may be varied as a function of time to create anoscillating hydrostatic pressure gradient, as described below.

Each of the first and second inlets 16, 20 and the first and secondoutlets 18, 22 may have an orifice. Thus, in some cases, the hydrostaticpressure gradient may be produced and controlled by varying the inletand outlet orifice sizes to the compartments 12, 14. For example, byconstricting the orifice size of the first outlet 18 of the firstcompartment 12, such that the orifice of the first inlet 16 has a largercross-sectional area than the orifice of the first outlet 18, pressurecan be built up in the first compartment 12. By creating an elevatedpressure in the first compartment 12 and maintaining a lower pressure inthe second compartment 14 (by having an equally-sized orifices in secondinlet 20 and second outlet 22 of the second compartment 14), ahydrostatic pressure gradient may be created between the firstcompartment 12 and the second compartment 14 across the thickness of thehydrogel.

The system 100 may include various other components to facilitate thepropagation of the first and second media solutions 105, 110 through thecompartments 12, 14 of the bioreactor 10. For example, some embodimentsmay include a pump 115, such as a peristaltic pump, in fluidcommunication with one or both sources of media solution 105, 110. Thepump 115 may be configured to propagate one or both of the mediasolutions 105, 110 through a respective compartment 12, 14 and may beused in conjunction with a controller 120. The controller 120 (whichmay, for example, include a computer) may thus be configured toautomatically control the pump 115 such that a solution of one or bothof the media solutions 105, 110 is propagated through the firstcompartment 12 via the first inlet (as previously described) and thesecond media solution 110 is propagated through the second compartment14 via the second inlet. Furthermore, the controller 120 may beconfigured to allow a user to set the flow rate of the respective mediasolution and maintain the desired flow rate generally constant. In FIG.1, the pump 115 is shown downstream of the bioreactor 10 and isconfigured to “pull” the media solution(s) through the bioreactor 10;however, the pump 115 may alternatively be located upstream of thebioreactor 10 and configured to “push” the media solution(s) through thebioreactor 10. Furthermore, multiple pumps may be used in the system100, such as a separate pump for propagating each media solution.

Valves and other flow components may also be included in the system 100.For example, one or more pinch valves 125 may be used at variouslocations in the system 100, such as shown in FIG. 1, to allow eitherthe first media solution 105 or a mixture of the first media solution105 and the second media solution 110 to be propagated from therespective sources to the first inlet of the first compartment 12. Othervalves 130 may also be used throughout the system 100 to regulate theflow of media solution to the bioreactor 10. The valves 130 may be madeof any material suitable for use considering the flow rate and sterilenature of the application, such as stainless steel, and may be any typeof valve, such as a ball valve, a gate valve, a pinch valve, a 1-wayvalve, a 2-way valve, etc., as appropriate.

In some embodiments, one or more sample ports 135, 140 may be includedin the system to provide access to media exiting the bioreactor 10. Asshown in FIG. 1, a first sample port 135 may be located downstream ofthe first outlet of the first compartment 12, and a second sample port140 may be located downstream of the second outlet of the secondcompartment 14. In this way, the sample ports 135, 140 may be configuredto provide access to media exiting the first and second compartments 12,14 through the first and second outlets, respectively. A user mayanalyze the media accessed via one or both sample ports 135, 140 todetermine whether the bioreactor 10 has been contaminated and/or toevaluate the metabolism of the cells by determining the extent of lacticacid production and glucose consumption, among other uses. In addition,the analysis of media via the sample ports 135, 140 may be performedautomatically at predetermined times, such as using acomputer-controlled analyzer, and feedback from such analyses may informthe control of other components of the system 100. For example, feedbackindicating that glucose consumption has increased may be relayed to oneor more of the valves 130, pinch valves 125, pumps 115, or othercomponents, which may also be automatically controlled such that thefeedback causes adjustments in the mixture of media solution provided,the flow rates, and/or other variables of the system. Media solutionexiting both compartments 12, 14 may then be discarded, such as by beingcombined into a receptacle of waste solution 145.

Turning to FIG. 4, some embodiments of the system 100 include a sourceof a third media solution 150 having a different osmolality than thefirst and second media solutions 105, 110. The first media solution 105may, for example, include sucrose, whereas the third media solution 150may not, thereby giving the first media solution 105 a higher osmolalitythan the third media solution 150. The third media solution 150 may, forexample, include TGF-β1 alone, as opposed to TGF-β1 plus sucrose. Thus,the first and third media solutions 105, 150 may be alternatelypropagated through the first compartment 12 to create an oscillatingosmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel material 24. As shown inFIG. 4, additional valves 130 and pinch valves 125 may be included toallow for alternate propagation of the first and third media solutions105, 150 through the first compartment 12 and the resulting oscillatingosmotic pressure gradient.

Bioreactors for Growing Cells

The bioreactor 10 used in the systems and examples described above maybe configured in various shapes and sizes as appropriate for theparticular application. For example, FIG. 5 shows a bioreactor 10 havingcentrally-located inlets 16, 20 and outlets 18, 22, whereas FIG. 2 showsa bioreactor 10 in which the inlets 16, 20 and outlets 18, 22 arelocated at opposite ends of the first and second compartments 12, 14. Inyet another embodiment, the bioreactor 10 may have a cylindricalconfiguration, as shown in FIG. 6. Furthermore, the volume of thecompartments 12, 14 may vary depending on the application. For example,in cases where the osmolality of the media streams is varied to createan oscillating osmotic pressure gradient, as described above, a smallervolume compartment may be desirable to allow the respective compartmentto be purged more quickly between solutions.

In any case, referring to FIG. 2, the first and second compartments 12,14 may be configured to allow the first media solution to contact thefirst surface 26 of the hydrogel 24 and the second media solution tocontact the second surface 30 of the hydrogel 24 in such a way that thefirst and second media solutions are permitted to contact each otheronly within the hydrogel material 24. Thus, the first surface 26 mayonly contact the first media solution, and the second surface 30 mayonly contact the second media solution, but through migration of themedia solutions into the hydrogel material 24, the two solutions maycome into contact with each other within the hydrogel 24 itself.

As shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, each compartment 12, 14 may include a ridge34 configured to engage an edge region of the hydrogel material 24 andto create a seal with the first and second surfaces 26, 30 of thehydrogel 24. The bioreactor 10 may also include various other componentsto hold the two compartments 12, 14 together and create the appropriateseals to allow propagation of the media solutions into the compartmentsin the manner described above. For example, in some embodiments, thebioreactor 10 includes a spacer element 36 positioned between thecompartments 12, 14, as shown in FIGS. 2 and 7. The spacer element 36may be configured to partially surround the hydrogel material 24 and topermit sealing of the first surface 26 of the hydrogel material 24 withthe ridge 34 of the first compartment 12 and sealing of the secondsurface 30 of the hydrogel with the ridge 34 of the second compartment14.

Furthermore, sealing members may be included on either side of thespacer element 36 to provide additional sealing of the bioreactor 10. Inthe configuration shown in FIGS. 2 and 7, for example, O-rings 38 areused as the sealing members. The O-rings 38 in this example areconfigured to seat in channels 40 (shown in FIG. 7) formed in the firstand second compartments 12, 14. In this way, when the compartments 12,14 are assembled with the spacer 36 to form the bioreactor 10, theO-rings 38 may engage a corresponding surface of the spacer element 36,thereby reducing the tendency of the ridges 34 to engage the hydrogel 24with excessive force, which may otherwise damage the hydrogel material,and also providing a secondary seal to prevent the media solutions fromleaking out of the bioreactor 10. Thus, the sealing members in someembodiments are compressible sealing members. A top plan view of thedisassembled bioreactor 10 of FIGS. 2 and 7, including the first andsecond compartments 12, 14, spacer element 36, first and second porousmaterials 28, 32, and O-rings 38, is shown in FIGS. 8A-8G. Other typesof sealing members may also be used instead of or in addition toO-rings, such as polymeric foams, adhesives, gels, etc.

Referring again to FIG. 2, in some embodiments, the first compartment 12may be configured to receive the first media solution at a predeterminedflow rate that varies as a function of time, whereas the secondcompartment 14 may be configured to receive the second media solution ata generally constant flow rate. Depending on the configuration of thebioreactor 10 and the system, media flow rates may range from 0 ml/hr.to 10 ml/hr. For example, the flow rate of the first media solution mayalternate between a flow rate of approximately 0.55 ml/hr. for apredetermined time period (such as 5 hours) and 0 ml/hr. for apredetermined time period (such as 5 hours). As the flow rate of thefirst media solution is alternated, the flow rate of the second mediasolution may be maintained generally constant, for example at a flowrate of approximately 0.55 ml/hr. In this way, the hydrostatic pressuregradient across the hydrogel material may be varied with time, furtherencouraging the growth of the cells.

In other embodiments, the first compartment 12 may be configured toalternately receive the first media solution and a third media solution,for example when used in a system similar to the system depicted in FIG.4. In this case, the third media solution has an osmolality that isdifferent from the first media solution such that alternate propagationof the first and third media solutions through the first compartment 12and propagation of the second media solution through the secondcompartment 14 creates an oscillating osmotic pressure gradient acrossthe hydrogel material, as previously discussed. In some embodiments, thefirst media solution may have an osmolality that is about 55-75% greaterthan the osmolality of the second media solution, whereas the thirdmedia solution may have the same osmolality as the second mediasolution. In this way, the osmotic pressure gradient may vary between apredetermined gradient, such as 74 mOsm/mm and relatively no gradient atall. For example, the first media solution may have an osmolality ofapproximately 550 mOsm, the second media solution may have an osmolalityof approximately 330 mOsm, and the third media solution may have anosmolality of approximately 330 mOsm. The first and third mediasolutions may be alternately propagated through the first compartment12, each for a predetermined amount of time (varying the osmolalitybetween 550 mOsm and 330 mOsm), while the second media solution ispropagated through the second compartment (maintaining the osmolality at330 mOsm).

The first and third media solutions may be cycled (i.e., alternated)once approximately every 3 to 6 hours. For example, in an application togrow chondrocyte cells for an articular cartilage repair of a humanbeing, the first and third media solutions may be cycled through thefirst compartment 12 once approximately every 5 hours to simulate thecompression and decompression experienced by cartilage within the humanbody. In other words, cartilage in the human body absorbs water from itssurroundings at certain times and expels water at other times, like asponge, depending on the activity in which the person is engaged. When aperson is sitting or lying down, for example, the cartilage in the kneesabsorbs water, whereas when the person is standing or walking, thecartilage expels the water. Thus, a cycle time of 5 hours may be chosento simulate the compression/decompression that may occur in kneecartilage when a person sits for 5 hours and stands for 5 hours.

Methods of Growing Cells

In other embodiments, a method of growing cells is provided. Athree-dimensional matrix is initially seeded with cells, such aschondrocytes, as previously described. A first media stream having afirst osmolality is then propagated across a first surface of thematrix, and a second media stream having a second osmolality ispropagated across a second surface of the matrix that is opposite thefirst surface. An osmotic pressure gradient may thus be created by themigration of the first media stream at least partially into the matrixthrough the first surface and migration of the second media stream atleast partially into the matrix through the second surface. In this way,the creation of the osmotic pressure gradient within the matrix, such asthat depicted in FIG. 3A, encourages growth of the cells.

As previously described, the three-dimensional matrix may be a hydrogelmaterial that includes one or more chemical compounds and substances,such as sodium alginate, agarose, hyaluronic acid, chondroiton sulfate,collagen, and/or proteoglycan, among others. The components of thehydrogel may be selected based on various factors, such as the type ofcells to be grown and the particular application.

In some cases, the flow rate of the first media stream may be varied asa function of time while the second media stream may be maintained at agenerally constant flow rate. As previously mentioned, in an exemplaryembodiment, the flow rate of the first media stream may be alternatedbetween a higher flow rate and a lower flow rate. For example, the firstmedia stream may be propagated at a flow rate of approximately 0.55ml/hr. for a predetermined time period (such as 5 hours) and 0 ml/hr.for a predetermined time period (such as 5 hours). The flow rate of thesecond media stream, however, may be maintained generally constant, forexample at a flow rate of approximately 0.55 ml/hr. In this way, thehydrostatic pressure gradient across the seeded matrix may be variedwith time, encouraging the growth of the cells.

Embodiments of the method of growing cells may also include varying theosmolality of the first media stream and maintaining the second mediastream at a generally constant osmolality. As described above, theosmolality of the first media stream may be alternated between a higherosmolality of 500-600 mOsm (e.g., an osmolality of approximately 550mOsm) for a predetermined amount of time and a lower osmolality of about250-400 mOsm (e.g., an osmolality of approximately 330 mOsm) for apredetermined amount of time. For example, the osmolality may bealternated by combining different media solutions having differentosmolalities. The second media stream may be maintained at a generallyconstant osmolality, such as a lower osmolality of approximately 330mOsm. Furthermore, the osmolality of the first media stream may bealternated between two different osmolalities once approximately every 3to 6 hours. In the case of growing chondrocytes, for example, theosmolality may be alternated approximately every 5 hours.

As described above, the first media solution may include growth factorsthat are known to stimulate growth and/or differentiation of theparticular type of cell and components that can alter properties of thesolution to achieve the desired type of gradient in a way that isnon-toxic to the cells, such as growth factors that include inhibins,activin, anti-mullerian hormone, bone morphogenetic protein,decapentaplegic, and Vg-1, depending on the type of cells to be grown.The first media solution may also include sucrose or any other compoundthat can alter the osmolality of the solution, such as sodium chloride,to facilitate the achievement of an osmotic pressure gradient across thehydrogel. In addition, the first media solution may include a growthfactor, a nutrient, and/or a cytokine. For example, the first mediastream may include basal media plus TGF-β1 plus sucrose, whereas thesecond media stream may include only basal media. In another example, asolution of basal media plus TGF-β1 plus sucrose may be propagatedalternately with a solution of basal media plus TGF-β1 as the firstmedia stream through the first compartment, and the second media streamof basal media solution only may be propagated through the secondcompartment to provide an oscillating osmotic pressure gradient.

In other embodiments, a method of growing cells may be provided thatincludes providing a hydrogel material seeded with chondrocyte cellsdisposed between a first porous material and a second porous material. Afirst media stream may be propagated at a predetermined flow rate and apredetermined osmolality through the first porous material, and a secondmedia stream may be propagated at a predetermined flow rate and apredetermined osmolality through the second porous material. Theosmolality of the first media stream may be varied while the osmolalityof the second media stream is maintained generally constant to create anoscillating osmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel material, asdescribed above.

For example, the osmolality of the first media stream may be varied suchthat the osmotic pressure gradient across the hydrogel materialoscillates between an osmotic pressure gradient of approximately 0mOsm/mm and approximately 74 mOsm/mm. Furthermore, the osmolality of thefirst media stream may be alternated between two different osmolalitiesonce approximately every 3 to 6 hours.

In yet another embodiment, a hydrogel material seeded with cells anddisposed between a first porous material and a second porous materialmay be provided. A first media stream having a first oxygen content maybe propagated through the first porous material, and a second mediastream having a second oxygen content may be propagated through thesecond porous material. In this way, an oxygen tension gradient may becreated within the matrix between a first surface of the hydrogel thatis in contact with the first porous material and a second surface of thehydrogel that is in contact with the second porous material by migrationof the first media stream at least partially in the matrix through thefirst surface and migration of the second media stream at leastpartially into the matrix through the second surface. The creation ofthe oxygen tension gradient within the matrix serves to encourage thegrowth of the cells, as previously discussed.

In some cases, oxygen is removed from one of the media streams to createthe oxygen tension gradient. For example, oxygen may be removed from thesecond media stream such that the second media stream has a lesseroxygen content than the first media stream. In other cases, a gas, suchas nitrogen, may be added to one of the media streams to displace atleast some of the oxygen. For example, nitrogen may be added to thesecond media stream to displace some of the oxygen such that the secondmedia stream has a lesser oxygen content than the first media stream.

An Example The Effect of Ultra-Low Frequency Osmotic Oscillations onChondrocytes

In an experiment conducted to examine the effect of ultra-low frequencyosmotic oscillations on chondrocyte viability and matrix production, forexample, chondrocytes were seeded in a hydrogel material and culturedunder three different conditions: (1) no osmotic pressure gradient; (2)a static osmotic pressure gradient; and (3) an oscillating osmoticpressure gradient. Cartilage was harvested from freshly euthanizedjuvenile pigs according to a protocol approved by the InstitutionalAnimal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Chondrocytes were then isolatedfrom the cartilage stepwise using hyaluronidase, protease, andcollaginase. The isolated chondrocytes were seeded at 110,000 cells/cm²in monolayer and grown to confluence in media consisting of DMEM, 10%fetal bovine serum, and 1% antibiotic/antimycotic at a temperature of37° C. and 5% CO₂. The cells were then released and seeded into hydrogeldiscs. The hydrogel discs had a 2% agarose content, were 27 mm indiameter, and had a thickness of 3 mm at a final density of 20 millioncells/ml. The discs were then placed in bioreactors similar to thebioreactor 10 shown in FIG. 2 and operated under the three conditionsmentioned above.

Three media solutions were used in a system similar to the system 100shown in FIG. 4 to achieve the three operating conditions. The threemedia solutions consisted of: (1) basal media (osmolality ofapproximately 330 mOsm); (2) basal media plus TGF-β1 (osmolality ofapproximately 330 mOsm); and (3) basal media plus TGF-β1 plus sucrose(osmolality of approximately 550 mOsm). The basal media solutionconsisted of DMEM, ITS (5 mcg/5 mcg/5 ng/ml), fetal bovine serum 2%,L-glutamine 2 mM, L-proline 50 mcg/ml, non-essential amino acids 0.1 mM,ascorbic acid 50 mcg/ml, and antibiotic/antimycotic 1%. The TGF-β1 wascombined with the basal media and with the basal media plus sucrosesolutions at 1 ng/ml. The media solutions were propagated through thebioreactor compartments at a flow rate of approximately 0.55 ml/hr, andthe bioreactors were operated for 28 days at 37° C. and 5% CO₂.

The condition of no osmotic pressure gradient was achieved bypropagating basal media plus TGF-β1 through the first compartment of thebioreactor and propagating only basal media through the secondcompartment, such that the osmolality of the solution in bothcompartments was 330 mOsm. A static osmotic pressure gradient wasachieved by propagating basal media plus TGF-β1 plus sucrose through thefirst compartment and propagating only basal media through the secondcompartment, such that the first compartment experienced a constantosmolality of about 550 mOsm and the second compartment experienced aconstant osmolality of 330 mOsm. An oscillating osmotic pressuregradient was achieved by alternately propagating basal media plus TGF-β1plus sucrose and basal media plus TGF-β1 (no sucrose) through the firstcompartment and propagating only basal media through the secondcompartment. Thus, under the third operating condition, the osmolalityof the first compartment alternated between 550 mOsm and 330 mOsm, whilethe osmolality of the second compartment was maintained at 330 mOsm. Thetemporal media osmolality and resulting osmolality gradient produced inthe hydrogel material for the condition of an oscillating osmoticpressure gradient, where the osmolality of the first compartment waschanged every 5 hours, is shown in FIG. 9.

After 28 days, the hydrogel material was removed from each bioreactorand analyzed to evaluate the growth of the cells. Following papaindigestion, sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) content was determined bydimethyl-methylene blue (DMMB) assay, collagen content was determined byhydroxyproline assay, and DNA content was determined by pico-green/calfthymus assay. The sGAG results were qualitatively verified usingToludine Blue staining of formalin/ethanol fixed, paraffin processedspecimens. sGAGs are long polysaccharide molecules that are a majorstructural component of cartilage. These molecules help bind water inthe cartilage extracellular matrix.

It was found that exposure to higher osmolality environments resulted inimprovements in sGAG content, both under steady state and oscillatingosmotic pressure gradient conditions. The content of sGAG in theoperating condition involving no osmotic pressure gradient was 1.49% wetweight. In the steady state and oscillating osmotic pressure gradientconditions, sGAG content improved to 1.61% wet weight and 2.45% wetweight, respectively. Thus, applying a steady state osmotic pressuregradient across the hydrogel improved sGAG content by 7.8% over havingno osmotic pressure gradient, and applying an oscillating osmoticpressure gradient improved sGAG content by 64% over the no gradientcondition. FIG. 10 shows the wet weight percentage of sGAG for each ofthe three conditions. Only trace amounts of collagen (<0.15%) werecreated under any of the three conditions, which may indicate that theprocess had not gone on long enough or that the cycling load may nothave been optimized, among other reasons. Furthermore, chondrocytemetabolism (glucose consumption vs. lactate production) was enhancedunder conditions involving a static or oscillating osmotic pressuregradient. These results indicate that growth of cells, such aschondrocytes, is encouraged when an osmotic pressure gradient isachieved across the three-dimensional matrix, and even more so when anoscillating osmotic pressure gradient is achieved.

Many modifications and other embodiments of the inventions set forthherein will come to mind to one skilled in the art to which theseinventions pertain having the benefit of the teachings presented in theforegoing descriptions and the associated drawings. Therefore, it is tobe understood that the inventions are not to be limited to the specificembodiments disclosed and that modifications and other embodiments areintended to be included within the scope of the appended claims.Although specific terms are employed herein, they are used in a genericand descriptive sense only and not for purposes of limitation.

1. An apparatus for growing and maintaining cells comprising: a firstcompartment including a first inlet configured to alternately receive afirst media solution and a third media solution, a first outlet in fluidcommunication with the first inlet, and a first porous material disposedwithin the first compartment; a second compartment including a secondinlet configured to receive a second media solution, a second outlet influid communication with the second inlet, and a second porous materialdisposed within the second compartment; and a hydrogel material seededwith cells, disposed between the first compartment and the secondcompartment, and at least partially supported on a first surface of thehydrogel material by the first porous material and on an opposite secondsurface of the hydrogel material by the second porous material; whereinthe first media solution is different from the second media solution,wherein the first and second compartments are configured such thatpropagation of the first media solution through the first compartmentand propagation of the second media solution through the secondcompartment establishes a controlled gradient across a thickness of thehydrogel material, and wherein the third media solution has a differentosmolality than the first media solution such that alternate propagationof the first and third media solutions through the first compartmentcreates an oscillating osmotic pressure gradient across the thickness ofthe hydrogel material.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the hydrogelmaterial is seeded with cells comprising chondrocytes.
 3. The apparatusof claim 1, wherein the hydrogel material comprises at least onesubstance selected from the group consisting of sodium alginate,agarose, hyaluronic acid, chondroiton sulfate, collagen, proteoglycan,and cell adhesion peptides.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein thefirst and second compartments are configured to allow the first mediasolution and the third media solution, respectively, to contact thefirst surface of the hydrogel material and the second media solution tocontact the second surface of the hydrogel material, and wherein thefirst media solution and the third media solution are permitted tocontact the second media solution only within the hydrogel material. 5.The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising: a spacer element disposedbetween the first and second compartments, wherein the spacer element isconfigured to partially surround the hydrogel material and to permitsealing of the first surface of the hydrogel material with a portion ofthe first compartment and sealing of the second surface of the hydrogelmaterial with a portion of the second compartment.
 6. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the first compartment is configured to receive thefirst media solution having a first osmolality and the secondcompartment is configured to receive the second media solution having asecond osmolality that is different from the first osmolality.
 7. Theapparatus of claim 1, wherein the first compartment is configured toreceive the first media solution having a first oxygen content and thesecond compartment is configured to receive the second media solutionhaving a second oxygen content that is different from the first oxygencontent such that an oxygen tension gradient is established across thethickness of the hydrogel.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein thefirst compartment is configured to receive the first media solutionhaving a first nutrient content and the second compartment is configuredto receive the second media solution having a second nutrient contentthat is different from the first nutrient content such that a nutrientgradient is established across the thickness of the hydrogel.
 9. Theapparatus of claim 1, wherein the first compartment is configured toreceive the first media solution at a predetermined flow rate thatvaries as a function of time and the second compartment is configured toreceive the second media solution at a generally constant flow rate. 10.The apparatus of claim 1, wherein each of the first and second inletsand the first and second outlets has an orifice, and wherein the orificeof the first inlet has a larger cross-sectional area than the orifice ofthe first outlet and the orifice of the second inlet has approximatelythe same cross-sectional area as the orifice of the second outlet, suchthat the hydrostatic pressure in the first compartment is greater thanthe hydrostatic pressure in the second compartment and creates ahydrostatic pressure gradient across the thickness of the hydrogel. 11.(canceled)
 12. A system for growing and maintaining cells comprising: abioreactor including: a first compartment having a first inlet, a firstoutlet in fluid communication with the first inlet, and a first porousmaterial disposed within the first compartment; a second compartmentadjacent the first compartment including a second inlet, a second outletin fluid communication with the second inlet, and a second porousmaterial disposed within the second compartment; and a hydrogel materialseeded with cells, disposed between the first compartment and the secondcompartment, and at least partially supported on a first surface of thehydrogel material by the first porous material and on an opposite,second surface of the hydrogel material by the second porous material; asource of a first media solution in fluid communication with the firstinlet; and a source of a second media solution that is different thanthe first media solution, wherein the source of the second mediasolution is in fluid communication with the source of the first mediasolution and at least one of the first and second inlets; and a sourceof a third media solution having a different osmolality than the firstand second media solutions, wherein the first and third media solutionsare alternately propagated through the first compartment and the secondmedia solution is propagated through the second compartment to create anoscillating osmotic pressure gradient across the thickness of thehydrogel material.
 13. The system of claim 12 further comprising: a pumpin fluid communication with at least one of the sources and configuredto propagate at least one of the media solutions through at least one ofthe first and second compartments; and a controller configured tocontrol the pump such that a solution comprising at least one of thefirst or third media solutions is propagated through the firstcompartment via the first inlet and the second media solution ispropagated through the second compartment via the second inlet.
 14. Thesystem of claim 12, wherein the first media solution is propagated at apredetermined flow rate that varies as a function of time and the secondmedia solution is propagated at a generally constant flow rate such thata hydrostatic pressure gradient that varies as a function of time isestablished across the thickness of the hydrogel.
 15. The system ofclaim 12 further comprising a pinch valve between the sources of thefirst and second media solutions and the first compartment, wherein thepinch valve is configured to allow a flow of the first media solutionfrom the respective source to the first inlet and to allow a flow of asolution comprising the first and second media solutions from both therespective sources to the first inlet, and wherein the third mediasolution is a combination of the first and second media solutions, suchthat the source of the third media solution comprises the source of thefirst media solution and the source of the second media solution. 16.The system of claim 12, wherein the first media solution has a firstosmolality and the second media solution has a second osmolality that isdifferent from the first osmolality such that an osmotic pressuregradient is established across the thickness of the hydrogel.
 17. Thesystem of claim 12, wherein the first media solution has a first oxygencontent and the second media solution has a second oxygen content thatis different from the first oxygen content such that an oxygen tensiongradient is established across the thickness of the hydrogel.
 18. Thesystem of claim 12, wherein the first media solution has a firstnutrient content and the second media solution has a second nutrientcontent that is different from the first nutrient content such that anutrient gradient is established across the thickness of the hydrogel.19. (canceled)
 20. The system of claim 12 further comprising a firstsample port downstream of the first outlet and a second sample portdownstream of the second outlet, wherein the first and second sampleports are configured to provide access to media exiting the first andsecond compartments through the first and second outlets, respectively.21-37. (canceled)
 38. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein each of thefirst and second compartments comprises a ridge configured to engage anedge region of the hydrogel material and to create a seal with the firstand second surfaces of the hydrogel.
 39. The apparatus of claim 5,wherein each of the first and second compartments defines a channelconfigured to receive a sealing member, wherein each sealing member isconfigured to engage a corresponding surface of the spacer element.